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Satellite image of the Geographical regions of Austria. Hostilities broke out on 14 June as the June—August 1866 , in which Prussia and the north German states faced not only Austria but much of the rest of Germany, especially the southern states. In 1438, Duke was chosen as the successor to his father-in-law,.

Climate data for Lech, Vorarlberg 1440 m; average temperatures 1982 — 2012 Dfc, bordering on Dfb. U rule in the Duchy of Austria finally returned when his son, Rudolph IV dating oostenrijk him in 1358. Thus Mathias succeeded to the Archduchy in 1608, and became emperor in 1612, until his death in 1619. The next largest population of linguistic and ethnic groups are the 124,392 who difference German as their even though they hail from outside of Austria mainly immigrants from Germany, some from Dating oostenrijk, in Italy,or the ; 123,417 English; 24,446 Albanian; 17,899 Polish; 14,699 Hungarian; 12,216 Romanian; 10,000 Malayali; 7,982 Arabic; 6,891 Slovak; 6,707 Czech; 5,916 Persian; 5,677 Italian; 5,466 Russian; 5,213 Piece; 4,938 Chinese; 4,264 Spanish; 3,503 Bulgarian. Other important towns were north of the modernnearand. Leopold engaged in the war but did not live to see its outcome, being succeeded by his in 1705.

En je eigen chalet als uitvalsbasis. Although largely shut out of domestic policy, he used his time to acquire knowledge of his lands and people, encouraged policies he was in accord with and made magnanimous gestures such as opening the Royal Parks of and to the public in 1766 and 1775 Alles für das Volk, nichts durch das Volk—Everything for the people, nothing by the people. When the 1778—1779 erupted between Austria and Prussia following the extinction of the Bavarian line of the dynasty, Russia refused to support Austria, its ally from the Seven Years' War, but offered to mediate and the war was ended, after almost no bloodshed, on 13 May 1779, when Russian and French mediators at the negotiated an end to the war.

Reizen - Command of the Austrian Armed Forces is exercised by the Minister of Defence, as of March 2018 :.

The history of Austria covers the history of and its predecessor states, from the early to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi Austria has been in use since 996 AD when it was a of the and from 1156 an independent later of the Heiliges Römisches Reich 962—1806. Austria was dominated by the and Haus Österreich from 1273 to 1918. In 1808, when of Austria dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, Austria became the , and was also part of the until the of 1866. In 1867, Austria formed a dual monarchy with Hungary: the 1867—1918. When this empire collapsed after the end of World War I in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main, mostly German-speaking areas of the empire its current frontiers , and adopted the name The. However the union and name were forbidden by the Allies at the. This led to the creation of the 1918-1933. Following the First Republic, tried to keep Austria independent from the. In 1938, Austrian-born annexed Austria to the with the , which was supported by a large majority of the. After the Austria again became an independent republic as the in 1955 and joined the in 1995. The history of Austria raises a number of questions. Should it be confined to the current Republic of Austria, or to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria? Should Austrian history include 1938—1945 when it did not exist? Of the lands now part of modern Austria, many were added over time — only two of the nine provinces or Bundesländer Lower Austria and Upper Austria are strictly 'Austria', while other parts are now part of countries like Italy or the Czech Republic. Within Austria there are large regional variations, and parts of Austria have at various times wished to become part of adjacent countries. See also: Human habitation of current Austria can be traced back to the first farming communities of the early. In the late Iron Age it was occupied by people of the culture c. The people first organised as a nation state as a kingdom referred to by the Romans as , dating from c. At the end of the 1st century BC the lands south of the became part of the , and was incorporated as the around 40 AD. The most important Roman settlement was at , which can still be visited today as an excavation site. In the 6th century, Germanic people, the occupied these lands until it fell to the in the 9th century. Around 800 AD, Charlemagne established the outpost of Awarenmark in what is now , to hold back advances from and. In the 10th century an eastern east of the River outpost of the , bordering , was established as the March of the East or '' in 976, ruled by the of. This 'Eastern March' borderland , in German was known as Ostarrîchi or 'Eastern Realm', '. The first mention of Ostarrîchi occurs in a document of that name dated 996 CE. From 1156 the Emperor created an independent duchy under the , until its extinction in 1246, corresponding to modern. Following the Babenberg dynasty and a brief , Austria came under the rule of the of Habsburg 1276—1282 , beginning a that would last through seven centuries becoming progressively distinct from neighbouring , within the. The 15th and early 16th century saw considerable expansion of the Habsburg territories through diplomacy and marriages to include , the and parts of. This expansionism, together with French aspirations and the resultant were important factors shaping for 200 years 1516—1756. By the Wormser Vertrag of 28 April 1521, the Emperor 1519—1521 split the dynasty, bestowing the hereditary Österreichische Länder on his brother, 1521—1564 and the first central administrative structures were established. By 1526 Ferdinand had also inherited the kingdoms of , and Hungary after the which partitioned the latter. However the now lay directly adjacent to the Austrian lands. Even after the unsuccessful first by the Turks in 1529, the Ottoman threat persisted for another one and a half centuries. The 16th Century also saw the spread of the. From around 1600 the Habsburg policy of recatholicisation or Catholic Renewal Rekatholisierung eventually led to the 1618—1648. Originally a religious war, it was also a struggle for power in central Europe, particularly the French opposition to the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire. Eventually the pressure of the anti-Habsburg coalition of France, Sweden, and most Protestant German states contained their authority to the Austrian and Czech lands in 1648. In 1683, the Ottoman forces were beaten back from Vienna a and eventually, in the 1683—1699 , pushed back beyond. When the main Spanish line of the Habsburgs died out in 1700, it precipitated the 1701—1714 between the Habsburgs and. Subsequently, Austria gained control, through the 1713 , of the , and. These acquisitions together with conquests in the gave Austria its greatest territorial extent to date. But when Archduke 1711—1740 died and was succeeded by his daughter, Maria Theresa 1740—1780 Austria was perceived as weak, leading to the 1740—1748 and the 1756—1763. Subsequently, Austria lost to. Austria also lost prior conquests from the Ottomans except and in the despite being allied with. These initiated a long-standing tension between Austria and Prussia. Maria Theresa effectively reigned as Empress through her husband, d. During her reign extensive reforms were initiated, and when Francis died in 1765, these were continued by her son, Emperor 1765—1790; Archduke 1780—1790. However his successor, his brother, 1790—1792 , was much more conservative. The next emperor, his son 1792—1835 , found himself at war with France in the 1792—1797 and 1798—1802 the prelude to the 1803—1815 , in which Austria lost further territory. Following further Austrian losses in the 1803—1806 the future of the Hapsburg Empire looked increasingly uncertain. Francis II responded by proclaiming the in August, taking the new title of Emperor. In 1806, having held both titles in the interim, he resigned the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which then ceased to exist. Following the , Austria became part of the till the of 1866. In the 19th century nationalist movements within the empire became increasingly evident, and the German element became increasingly weakened. With Austria's expulsion from the Confederation and the 1866 war the with was created by the in 1867. This succeeded in reducing but not removing nationalist tensions, which were to boil over with the 1914 assassination of the Austrian heir to the throne, in , and the ensuing chain reaction resulting in the. The losses of the war resulted in the collapse of the empire and dynasty in 1918. The non-German ethnic groups broke away leaving Austria's current boundaries as , which was proclaimed an independent republic. Persistent and domestic political tensions led to civil strife in February 1934, with the May Constitution of 1934 resulting in an authoritarian corporate state. Just two months later the Austrian Nazis staged the , wanting to annex the country to the , resulting in the assassination of Chancellor. While the coup failed, succeeded in Austria on 12 March 1938 as , until 1945. Austria was partitioned after the and then in 1955 became the independent sovereign state that has existed to the present day. In 1995, Austria the. Satellite image of the Geographical regions of Austria. The modern state of Austria is considered to have three geographic zones. The biggest third consists of the , which covers 62. The remaining third of the country are the along the border with 11. The Bohemian Massif and its foothills were formed in the of the late era. Another important element of Austrian geology and is the late , and the subsequent formation of the ocean and in the era. The extensive alpine regions are sparsely populated, and form a barrier to passage of peoples apart from strategic passes providing access to. Austria is positioned between the eastern European countries and central-western Europe, a position that has dictated much of its history. The Danube Valley has always been an important corridor from the West to the and the. The Alps were inaccessible during the , so human habitation dates no earlier than the era, during the time of the. The oldest traces of human habitation in Austria, more than 250,000 years ago, were found in the Repolust Cave at Badl, near in the district of. These include stone tools, bone tools and pottery fragments together with mammalian remains. Some 70,000-year-old evidence was found in the Gudenus Cave in northwestern Lower Austria. The best known are in the region, including the sites of the two oldest pieces of art in Austria. These are figurative representations of women, the found near and thought to be 32,000 years old, and the nearby 26,000 years old found at , near. In 2005 in the same area, a double infant burial site was discovered at Krems-Wachtberg, dating from culture 27,000 years old , the oldest burial ground found in Austria to date. Mesolithic remains include abris from and the , a funeral site at and a few other sites with microlithic artifacts which demonstrate the transition from living as hunter-gatherers and sedentary farmers and ranchers. Neolithic During the era, most of those areas of Austria that were amenable to and were sources of raw materials were settled. Remains include those of the , one of the first agrarian cultures in Europe. The first recorded rural settlement from this time was at in. Austria's first industrial monument, the mine at Mauer-Antonshöhe in the neighbourhood of the southern Vienna district of dates from this period. In the , which followed Linear Pottery in Lower Austria, were constructed. Copper Age Traces of the Chalcolithic era in Austria were identified in the at , , Lower Austria. Hilltop settlements from this era are common in eastern Austria. During this time the inhabitants sought out and developed raw materials in the central Alpine areas. The most important find is considered to be the Iceman a well-preserved mummy of a man frozen in the Alps dating from approximately 3,300 BC, although these finds are now in Italy on the Austrian border. Another culture is the culture, represented by in the Alpine lakes. Bronze Age By the beginning of the were appearing, protecting the commercial centres of the mining, processing and trading of and. This flourishing culture is reflected in the grave artifacts, such as at Pitten, in , Lower Austria. In the late Bronze Age appeared the , in which commenced in the northern salt mines at. Iron Age Hallstatt 800 BC: solid yellow; 500 BC: light yellow and La Tène 450 BC: solid green; 50 BC light green This early Iron Age culture is named after Hallstatt the in. The culture is often described in two zones, Western and Eastern, through which flowed the rivers , and. The West Hallstatt area was in contact with the Greek colonies on the coast. In the Alps, contacts with the and under Greek influence regions in Italy were maintained. The East had close links with the Steppe Peoples who had passed over the Carpathian Basin from the southern Russian steppes. The population of Hallstatt drew its wealth from the salt industry. Imports of luxury goods stretching from the North and Baltic seas to Africa have been discovered in the cemetery at Hallstatt. The oldest evidence of an Austrian wine industry was discovered in , in a grave mound. The , is evidence of contemporary religious life. La Tène Celtic culture In the later , the spread to Austria. This culture gave rise to the first-recorded local tribal , , and place names. Out of this arose 2nd century to c. It was confined to present-day southern and eastern Austria and part of. The West was settled by the. In eastern and the e. This led to the creation of a Roman trading outpost on the in the early 1st century b. Fortified hilltop settlements , e. Some cities such as Lentos date back to this period also. Roman era The province of highlighted within the. During the reign of the 41—54 AD , the Roman province of Noricum had as its boundaries, to the north the , to the north-east the , in the east approximately the current eastern border of while in the south-east and south it was bounded by the and rivers. Later, under 284—305 , the province was divided along the main Alpine ridge into a northern Noricum ripense and a southern Noricum mediterraneum. Across the in the west, corresponding to the present provinces of and lay the province of incorporating the earlier territory of. In the east lay , today's. To the south was Region 10,. The Danube river formed the limes Danubii fluminis , a defensive line separating Upper and Lower Austria from the of the and. The Romans built many cities that survive today. They include Vindobona , Juvavum , Valdidena , and Brigantium. Other important towns were north of the modern , near , and. Significant archaeological sites from the Roman period include Styria and. After the arrival of the , Austria became the object of missionary efforts, such as Rupert and Virgil of the. Migration period Routes of. First phase: Goths, 300—500 AD The Völkerwanderung sealed the decline of Roman power in Austria. In the First Phase 300—500 AD the Roman Empire was increasingly harassed by from the 5th Century, including and. As the fabric of the Roman Empire crumbled, the ability of Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia to defend themselves became increasingly problematic. After several raids on Italy, the arrived in 408, under. As described by , Alaric set out from modern which lay between and over the arriving at Virunum in Noricum, as had been agreed to by the Roman general , following several skirmishes between the two. Alaric was voted a large amount of money to maintain peace, by the Roman Senate, at 's instigation. From there he directed his operations against Italy, demanding Noricum among other territory, finally sacking Rome in 410 but dying on the route home that year. The Visogoths eventually moved on, allowing a short period of stability apart from domestic disturbances in 431. The death of in 453 allowed the to scatter his Hunnish empire. Many tribes, formerly under the Huns now started to settle along the Danube basin and assert their independence. Among these were the , who formed their own lands Rugiland across the Danube and started to impose their will on Noricum. From 472 and invaded the area but did not subdue it. Even after had overthrown the last Western Roman Emperor in 476, there remained remnants of the Roman administration in the provinces before the final collapse of Late Antiquity in this area see and Flaccitheus. Noricum was eventually abandoned in 488, while Raetia was abandoned by the Romans to the. Abandoned and devastated towns and buildings slowly fell into disarray during the 4th and 5th centuries. By 493 the area was part of the lands of the Ostragoth king and there were no remaining Roman influences. The collapse of the Ostragothic empire began with his death in 526. Second phase: Slavs and Bavarii, 500—700 AD See also: During the second phase of the 500—700 AD the Langobardii made a brief appearance in the northern and eastern regions around 500 AD, but had been driven south into northern Italy by the by 567. The Avars and their vassal Slavs had established themselves from the to the. After the Avars suffered setbacks in the east in 626, the Slavs rebelled, establishing their own territories. The Alpine Slavs Carantanii elected a Bavarian, Odilo, as their count and successfully resisted further Avar subjugation. The eastern tribe of the Carantanians in the wake of the expansion of their overlords during the 7th century, mixed with the Celto-Romanic population, and established the realm of later , which covered much of eastern and central Austrian territory and was the first independent Slavic state in Europe, centred at. Together with the indigenous population they were able to resist further encroachment of the neighboring and Avars in the southeastern Alps. In the meantime, the of the Bavarians , vassals of the , had developed in the 5th and 6th century in the west of the country and in what is now known as , while what is today had been settled by the. In the northern alps the Bavarians had become established as a stem dukedom around 550 AD, under the rule of the till 788 as an eastern outpost of the. At that time the lands occupied by the Bavarians extended south to current , and east to the river. The administrative centre was at. Those groups mixed with the population and pushed it up into the mountains along the. In the south of present-day Austria the Slavic tribes had settled in the valleys of the Drava, and by 600 AD. The westward Slavic migration stopped further Bavarian migration eastwards by 610. Their most westward expansion was reached in 650 at the Puster Valley , but gradually fell back to the by 780. The settlement boundary between Slavs and Bavarians roughly corresponds to a line from through , , to , with Avars and Slavs occupying eastern Austria and modern day. Carantania, under pressure of the Avars, lost its independence to in 745 and was divided between Bavaria western part and the eastern part. The Bavarian part of it became a. During the following centuries, Bavarian settlers went down the Danube and up the Alps, a process through which Austria was to become the mostly German-speaking country it is today. The in the 10th century showing Bavarian marches, including Carinthia. Bavarian relationship with the Franks varied, achieving temporary independence by 717 AD, only to be subjugated by Charles Martel. Finally Emperor 800—814 deposed the last Agilolfing duke, , assuming direct control in 788 AD, with non-hereditary Bavarian kings. Charlemagne subsequently led the Franks and Bavarians against the eastern in 791, so that by 803 they had fallen back to the east of the and rivers. These conquests enabled the establishment of a system of defensive marches military borderlands from the Danube to the Adriatic. Among these was an eastern march, the Awarenmark , corresponding roughly to present day , bordered by the rivers , and , while to the south lay the. Both marches were collectively referred to as the Eastern March , a prefecture of the Duchy of Bavaria. In 805, the Avars, with Charlemagne's permission, led by the Avar Khagan, settled south-eastward from. A new threat appeared in 862, the , following the pattern of displacement from more eastern territories by superior forces. By 896 the Hungarians from which they raided the Frankish domains. They defeated the and in 907 defeated the Bavarians at the and by 909 had overrun the marches forcing the back to the. Bavaria became a under 890—895 and was re-established as a Duchy under 907—937 who united it with the , occupying most of the eastern alps. This proved short lived. His son 937—938 found himself in conflict with the German King, Otto the Great who deposed him. The next Duke was 947—955 , who was Otto's brother. In 955 Otto successfully forced back the Hungarians at the , beginning a slow reconquest of the eastern lands, including and. During the reign of Henry's son, 955—976 Otto became the first 962 and Bavaria became a of the. Otto I re-established the eastern march, and was succeeded by in 967, and found himself in conflict with Henry who he deposed, allowing him to re-organise the duchies of his empire. Otto considerably reduced Bavaria, re-establishing Carinthia to the south. To the east, he established a new , subsequently known as Austria, under Luitpold , count of in 976. Leopold I, also known as Leopold the Illustrious Luitpold der Erlauchte ruled Austria from 976—994. Babenberg Austria 976—1246 The Bajovaria , Margravate of Ostarrichi and the Duchy of Carantania c. The were overseen by a comes or dux as appointed by the emperor. These titles are usually translated as count or duke, but these terms conveyed very different meanings in the , so the versions are to be preferred. In speaking countries, the title was eventually regularized to German: markgraf i. The first recorded instance of the name 'Austria' appeared in 996, in a document of written as , referring to the territory of the Babenberg March. In addition, for a long time the form Osterlant Ostland or 'Eastland' was in use, the inhabitants being referred to as Ostermann or Osterfrau. The name Austria applied to this area appears in the 12th Century writings in the time of 1095—1136. The term is not historically certain and appears to be a translation of marchia orientalis that came up only much later. The Babenbergs pursued a policy of settling the country, clearing forests and founding towns and monasteries. They ruled the March from initially, and later from , continually expanding the territory eastward along the valley, so that by 1002 it reached. The eastward expansion was finally halted by the newly Christianized in 1030, when 1001—1038 of Hungary defeated the Emperor, 1024—1039 at Vienna. A 'core' territory had finally been established. The land contained the remnant of many prior civilisations, but the Bavarians predominated, except in the area to the west occupied by the. Pockets of the Celto-Romanic population Walchen or Welsche persisted, such as around , and Roman place names persisted, such as Salzburg. In addition this population was distinguished by Christianity and by their language, a Latin dialect. Salzburg was already a bishopric 739 , and by 798 an archbishopric. Although the Germanic Bavarians steadily replaced Romansch as the main language, they adopted many Roman customs and became increasingly Christianized. Similarly in the east, German replaced the Slavic language. The March of Austria's neighbours were the Duchy of Bavaria to the west, the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Poland to the North, the Kingdom of Hungary to the east and the Duchy of to the south. In this setting, Austria, still subject to Bavaria was a relatively small player. The Babenberg Margraves controlled very little of modern Austria. Salzburg, historically part of Bavaria became an ecclesiastical territory, while was part of the Carinthian Duchy. The Babenbergs had relatively small holdings, with not only Salzburg but the lands of the Diocese of Passau lying in the hands of the church, and the nobility controlling much of the rest. However they embarked on a programme of consolidating their power base. One such method was to employ indentures servants such as the Kuenringern family as and given considerable military and administrative duties. They survived as a dynasty through good fortune and skill at power politics, in that era dominated by the continual. The path was not always smooth. The fifth Margrave, 'The Fair' Luitpold der Schöne 1075—1095 was temporarily deposed by the Emperor 1084—1105 after finding himself on the wrong side of the. However Leopold's son, 'The Good' Luitpold der Heilige 1095—1136 backed Henry's rebellious son, 1111—1125 , contributed to his victory and was rewarded with the hand of Henry's sister in 1106, thus allying himself with the Imperial family. Leopold then concentrated on pacifying the nobility. His foundations, particularly and , led to his in 1458, and he became Austria's. Union with Bavaria 1139 Leopold III was succeeded by his son, 'The Generous' Luitpold der Freigiebige 1137—1141. Leopold further enhanced the status of Austria by also becoming in 1139, as Leopold I. Bavaria itself had been in the hands of the Guelph dynasty, who were pitted against the. The latter came to the imperial throne in 1138 in the person of 1138—1152 ; the Duke of Bavaria, , was himself a candidate for the imperial crown and disputed the election of Conrad, and was subsequently deprived of the Duchy, which was given to Leopold IV. When Leopold died, his lands were inherited by his brother Heinrich Jasomirgott 1141—1177. In the meantime, Conrad had been succeeded as emperor by his nephew 1155—1190 , who was descended from both the Welfs and Hohenstauffens and sought to end the conflicts within Germany. To this end he returned Bavaria to the Welfs in 1156, but as compensation elevated Austria to a duchy through an instrument known as the. Henry II thus became Duke of Austria in exchange for losing the title of Duke of Bavaria. Duchy of Austria 1156—1246 See also: Austria was now an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire, and Henry moved his official residence to Vienna that year. Leopold the Virtuous and union with Styria 1177—1194 In 1186 the bequeathed Austria's southern neighbour, to Austria upon the death of the childless Duke of Styria, , which occurred in 1192. Styria had been carved out of the northern marches of , and only raised to the status of Duchy in 1180. However the territory of the Duchy of Styria extended far beyond the current state of , including parts of present-day , and also parts of the Traungau, the area around and and the county of , today's districts of and. The second Duke of Austria, Henry II's son Luitpold der Tugendhafte 1177—1194 became Duke of these combined territories. Leopold is perhaps best known for his imprisonment of the British king, following the 1189—1192 , in 1192 at. The ransom money he received helped finance many of his projects. At that time, the Babenberg Dukes came to be one of the most influential ruling families in the region, peaking in the reign of Henry's grandson the Glorious Luitpold der Glorreiche 1198—1230 , the fourth Duke. Frederick the Quarrelsome: Division of the land and end of a dynasty 1230—1246 On Leopold's death, he was succeeded by his son the Quarrelsome Friedrich der Streitbare 1230—1246. In 1238 he divided the land into two areas divided by the. That part above the Enns became Ob erhalb der Enns Above the Enns or 'Upper Austria' Oberösterreich , although other names such as supra anasum from an old Latin name for the river , and Austria superior were also in use. Those lands below the Enns or unter der Enns became known as Lower Austria Niederösterreich. The Traungau and Steyr were made part of Upper Austria rather than Styria. Another of Frederick's achievements was a Patent of Protection for in 1244. However Frederick was killed in the against the Hungarians, and had no surviving children. Thus the Babenburg dynasty became extinct in 1246. Interregnum 1246—1278 The realms of. What followed was an , a period of several decades during which the status of the country was disputed, and during which Frederick II's duchy fell victim to a prolonged power play between rival forces. During this time there were multiple claimants to the title, including son of King of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus aimed at acquiring the Duchy of Austria by arranging the marriage of Vladislaus to the last Duke's niece , herself a potential heir and claimant. According to the issued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1156, the Austrian lands could be bequeathed through the female line. Vladislaus received the homage of the Austrian nobility, but died shortly afterwards, on 3 January 1247, before he could take possession of the duchy. Next came in 1248. He also made claim by seeking Gertrud's hand but did not have the support of the nobility. Herman died in 1250, and his claim was taken up by his son , but his claim was thwarted by the Bohemian invasion of Austria. In an attempt to end the turmoil a group of Austrian nobles invited the king of , Přemysl, Vladislaus' brother, to become Austria's ruler in 1251. His father had attempted to invade Austria in 1250. Ottokar then proceeded to ally himself to the Babenbergs by marrying , daughter of Leopold VI and thereby a potential claimant of the throne, in 1252. He subdued the quarrelsome nobles and made himself ruler of most of the area, including Austria, Styria, and Corinthia. Ottokar was a lawmaker and builder. Among his achievements was the founding of the in Vienna. Ottokar was in a position to establish a new empire, given the weakness of the on the death of Frederick II 1220—1250 particularly after the dynasty was ended in 1254 with the death of and the ensuing Imperial interregnum 1254—1273. Thus Ottokar put himself forward as a candidate for the imperial throne, but was unsuccessful. Religious persecution During the interregnum, Austria was the scene of intense persecution of by the. The first instances appear in 1260 in over forty parishes in the southern Danube region between the and the , and were mainly directed against the. Habsburg ascent and death of Ottokar 1273—1278 Ottokar again contested the Imperial Throne in 1273, being almost alone in this position in the electoral college. This time he refused to accept the authority of the successful candidate, Emperor 1273—1291. In November 1274 the at ruled that all crown estates seized since the death of the Emperor Frederick II 1250 must be restored, and that King Ottokar II must answer to the Diet for not recognising the new emperor, Rudolf. Ottokar refused either to appear or to restore the duchies of , and with the , which he had claimed through his first wife, a heiress, and which he had seized while disputing them with another Babenberg heir, Margrave. Rudolph refuted Ottokar's succession to the Babenberg patrimony, declaring that the provinces must revert to the Imperial crown due to the lack of male-line heirs a position that however conflicted with the provisions of the Austrian. King Ottokar was placed under the ; and in June 1276 war was declared against him, Rudolf laying siege to. Having persuaded Ottokar's former ally to switch sides, Rudolph compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces to the control of the imperial administration in November 1276. Ottokar having relinquished his territories outside of the Czech lands, Rudolph re-invested him with the , betrothed his youngest daughter, , to Ottokar's son , and made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottokar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, made an alliance with some chiefs of , and procured the support of several German princes, again including Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria. To meet this coalition, Rudolph formed an alliance with King and gave additional privileges to the Vienna citizens. On 26 August 1278, the rival armies met at the , northeast of Vienna, where Ottokar was defeated and killed. The was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, leaving Ottokar's widow , in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus II was again betrothed to. Rudolf was thus able to assume sole control over Austria, as Duke of Austria and Styria 1278—1282 which remained under rule for over six centuries, until 1918. The establishment of the Habsburg dynasty: Duchy of Austria 1278—1453 , where he was buried. Thus Austria and the Empire came under a single Habsburg crown, and after a few centuries 1438 would remain so almost continuously see below till 1806, when the empire was dissolved, obviating the frequent conflicts that had occurred previously. Rudolph I and primogeniture 1278—1358 spent several years establishing his authority in Austria, finding some difficulty in establishing his family as successors to the rule of the province. At length the hostility of the princes was overcome and he was able to bequeath Austria to his two sons. Rudolf continued his campaigns subduing and subjugating and adding to his domins, dying in 1291, but leaving dynastic instability in Austria, where frequently the Duchy of Austria was shared between family members. However Rudolf was unsuccessful in ensuring the succession to the imperial throne for the Dukes of Austria and Styria. The conjoint dukedom lasted only a year until the Rheinfelder Hausordnung in 1283 established the Habsburg. Establishing primogeniture, then eleven-year-old Duke Rudolph II had to waive all his rights to the thrones of Austria and Styria to the benefit of his elder brother Albert I. While Rudolph was supposed to be compensated, this did not happen, dying in 1290, and his son subsequently murdered his uncle Albert I in 1308. For a brief period, Albert I also shared the duchies with the Good 1298—1307 , and finally achieved the imperial throne in 1298. On Albert I's death, the duchy but not the empire passed to his son, 1308—1330 , at least not until 1314 when he became co-ruler of the empire with. Frederick also had to share the duchy with his brother the Glorious 1308—1326. Yet another brother, the Wise 1330—1358 succeeded Frederick. When Otto died in 1339, his two sons, Frederick II and Leopold II replaced him, making three simultaneous Dukes of Austria from 1339 to 1344 when both of them died in their teens without issue. Single rule in the Duchy of Austria finally returned when his son, Rudolph IV succeeded him in 1358. In the 14th century the Habsburgs began to accumulate other provinces in the vicinity of the Duchy of Austria, which had remained a small territory along the Danube, and Styria, which they had acquired with Austria from Ottokar. In 1335 Albert II inherited the and the from the then rulers, the. Rudolph IV and the Privilegium Maius 1358—1365 the Founder 1358—1365 was the first to claim the title of Archduke of Austria, through the of 1359, which was actually a and not recognized outside of Austria till 1453. However it would have placed him on a level footing with the other of the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolph was one of the most active rulers of his time, initiating many measures and elevating the importance of the City of Vienna. At that time Vienna was ecclesiastically subordinate to the , which Rudolph subverted by founding and appointing the as the of Austria. He improved the economy and established a stable currency, the Vienna Penny Wiener Pfennig. When he died in 1365 he was without issue and the succession passed to his brothers jointly under the Rudolfinian House Rules Rudolfinische Hausordnung. In 1363, the was acquired by Rudolph IV from. Thus Austria was now a complex country in the Eastern Alps, and these lands are often referred to as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands, as well as simply Austria, since the Habsburgs also began to accumulate lands far from their Hereditary Lands. Albert III and Leopold III: A house divided 1365—1457 See also: and Almost the entire 15th Century was a confusion of estate and family disputes, which considerably weakened the political and economic importance of the Habsburg lands. It was not until 1453 in the reign of the Peaceful 1457—1493 that the country at least the core territories would be finally united again. Rudolph IV's brothers the Pigtail and the Just quarreled ceaselessly and eventually agreed to split the realm in the in 1379, which was to result in further schisms later. Altogether this resulted in three separate jurisdictions. He was succeeded by his son 1395—1404 and grandson 1404—1439 who regained the imperial throne for the Habsburgs and through his territorial acquisitions was set to become one of the most powerful rulers in Europe had he not died when he did, leaving only a heir, born four months later 1440—1457. Instead it was Ladislaus' guardian and successor, the Leopoldian the Peaceful 1457—1493 who benefited. The Albertinian line having become extinct, the title now passed back to the Leopoldians. Frederick was so aware of the potential of being the young Ladislaus' guardian that he refused to let him rule independently upon reaching majority 12 in Austria at the time and had to be forced to release him by the Austrian Estates League of Mailberg 1452. Leopoldian line 1379—1490 Leopold III took the remaining territories, ruling till 1386. He was succeeded by two of his sons jointly, 1386—1406 and 1386—1411. In 1402 yet another split in the Duchy occurred, since Leopold III had had four sons and neither Leopold IV or William had heirs. The remaining brothers then divided the territory. Once William died in 1406, this took formal effect with two separate ducal lines, the Elder Ernestine Line and Junior Tyrolean Line respectively. Ernestine line Inner Austria 1406—1457 1415—1493 by , c. Duke 1424, King 1440, Emperor 1452, Archduke 1457. The Ernestine line consisted of Ernest and a joint rule by two of his sons upon his death in 1424, the Prodigal 1457—1463 and the Peaceful 1457—1493. They too quarreled and in turn divided what had now become both Lower and Inner Austria upon the death of Ladislaus in 1457 and extinction of the Albertinians. Albert seized Upper Austria in 1458, ruling from , but in 1462 proceeded to besiege his elder brother in the in Vienna, seizing lower Austria too. However, since he died childless the following year 1463 his possessions automatically reverted to his brother, and Frederick now controlled all of the Albertinian and Ernestine possessions. Frederick's political career had advanced in a major way, since he inherited the Duchy of Inner Austria in 1424. From being a Duke, he became as Frederick IV in 1440 and Holy Roman Emperor as Frederick III 1452—1493. Tyrolean line Further Austria 1406—1490 The Tyrolean line consisted of Frederick IV and his son, 1439—1490. Frederick moved his court to but lost some of his possessions to Switzerland. Sigismund who succeeded him sold some of his lands to in 1469 and was elevated to Archduke by Emperor Frederick III in 1477. He died childless, but in 1490, he abdicated in the face of unpopularity and Further Austria reverted to the then Archduke, the Last Knight 1490—1493 , Frederick V's son who now effectively controlled all the Habsburg territory for the first time since 1365. Religious persecution 1997 Monument to those burned by Petrus Zwicker in in 1397. The inquisition was also active under the Habsburgs, particularly between 1311 and 1315 when inquisitions were held in , , and Vienna. The Inquisitor, , conducted severe persecutions in Steyr, , , and Vienna between 1391 and 1402. In 1397 there were some 80—100 burnt in Steyr alone, now remembered in a 1997 monument. Duchy and Kingdom During the Habsburg Duchy, there were 13 consecutive Dukes, of whom four were also crowned , , , , and Albert II as King of Germany , although none were recognised as by the. When Duke Albert V 1404—1439 was elected as emperor in 1438 as Albert II , as the successor to his father-in-law, 1433—1437 the imperial crown returned once more to the Habsburgs. Although Albert himself only reigned for a year 1438—1439 , from then on, every emperor was a Habsburg with only one exception: 1742—1745 , and Austria's rulers were also the Holy Roman Emperors until its dissolution in 1806. Archduchy of Austria: Becoming a Great Power 1453—1564 Main article: Frederick V 1453—1493 : Elevation of the duchy Frederick V Duke 1424 Archduke 1453, died 1493 the Peaceful 1452-—1493 confirmed the Privilegium Maius of Rudolph IV in 1453, and so Austria became an official of the Holy Roman Empire, the next step in its ascendancy within Europe, and 1440—1457 the first official archduke for a brief period, dying shortly after. Frederick had a clear motive for this. He was a Habsburg, he was Duke of Inner Austria in addition to being Emperor, and, up till the previous year, had been guardian of the young Duke of Lower Austria, Ladislaus. He also stood to inherit Ladislaus's title, and did so when Ladislaus died four years later, becoming the second Archduke. The Austrian Archdukes were now of equal status to the other that selected the emperors. Austrian governance was now to be based on primogeniture and indivisibility. In 1861 it was again divided into and. The relative power of the emperor in the monarchy was not great, as many other aristocratic dynasties pursued their own political power inside and outside the monarchy. However Frederick, although lackluster, pursued a tough and effective rule. He pursued power through dynastic alliances. In 1477 Archduke and Emperor 1493—1519 , only son, married , , thus acquiring most of the for the family. The strategic importance of this alliance was that Burgundy, which lay on the western border of the empire, was demonstrating expansionist tendencies, and was at that time one of the richest and most powerful of the Western European nation states, with territories stretching from the south of France to the. The alliance was achieved at no small cost, since France, which also claimed Burgundy, contested this acquisition, and Maximilian had to defend his new wife's territories from , finally doing so upon Mary's death in 1482 at the. Relationships with France remained difficult, Louis XI being defeated at the in 1479. Matters with France were only concluded in 1493 at the after Maximilian had become emperor. This and Maximilian's later dynastic alliances gave rise to the saying: Bella gerant alii, tu felix Austria nube, Nam quae Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus which became a motto of the dynasty. Frederick's reign was pivotal in Austrian history. He united the core lands by simply outliving the rest of his family. From 1439, when Albert V died and the responsibilities for both of the core territories lay with Frederick, he systematically consolidated his power base. The next year 1440 he marched on Rome as with his ward, Ladislaus the last Albertinian duke, and when he was crowned in Rome in 1452 he was not only the first Habsburg but also the last German king to be crowned in Rome by the Pope. The dynasty was now en route to become a world power. The concept of pietas austriacae the divine duty to rule had originated with Rudolph I, but was reformulated by Frederick as , Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan or Austriae est imperare orbi universo Austria's destiny is to rule the world , which came to symbolise Austrian power. However, not all events proceeded smoothly for Frederick. The resulted in the Hungarian king, setting himself up in till his death in 1490. Frederick therefore found himself with an itinerant court, predominantly in the Upper Austrian capital of. Maximilian I 1493—1519 : Reunification by 1519 Maximilian I shared rule with his father during the latter year of Frederick's reign, being elected King of the Romans in 1486. By acquiring the lands of the Tyrolean line of the Habsburgs in 1490 he finally reunited all the Austrian lands, divided since 1379. He also needed to deal with the Hungarian problem when died in 1490. Maximilian reconquered the lost parts of Austria and established peace with Mathias's successor at the in 1491. However the dynastic pattern of division and unification would be one that kept repeating itself over time. With unsettled borders Maximilian found in the a safer place for a capital, between his Burgundian and Austrian lands, although he was rarely in any place for very long, being acutely aware of how his father had been repeatedly besieged in Vienna. Maximilian raised the art of dynastic alliance to a new height and set about systematically creating a dynastic tradition, albeit through considerable revisionism. His wife Mary, was to die in 1482, only five years after they were married. He then married by proxy in 1490, a move that would have brought , at that time independent, into the Habsburg fold, which was considered provocative to the French monarchy. Maximilian's son, 1478—1506 married , heiress of and in 1496, and thus acquired Spain and its Italian , and , African, and New World for the Habsburgs. However Tu felix Austria nube was perhaps more romantic than strictly realistic, since Maximilian was not slow to wage war when it suited his purpose. Having settled matters with France in 1493, he was soon involved in the long against France 1494—1559. In addition to the wars against the French, there were the wars for independence. The of 1499 marked the last phase of this struggle against the Habsburgs. Following defeat at the in 1499, Austria was forced to recognise independence at the in 1499, a process that was finally formalised by the in 1648. This was significant as the Habsburgs had originated in , their ancestral home being. In domestic policy, Maximilian launched a series of reforms at the 1495 , at which the Imperial Chamber Court was launched as the highest court. Another new institution of 1495 was the or Imperial government, meeting at. This preliminary exercise in democracy failed and was dissolved in 1502. Attempts at creating a unified state were not very successful, but rather re-emerged the idea of the three divisions of Austria that existed prior to the unification of Frederick and Maximilian. Short of funds for his various schemes he relied heavily on banking families such as the 's, and it was these bankers that bribed the prince electors to choose Maximilian's grandson Charles as his successor. One tradition he did away with was the centuries-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the Pope in Rome. Thus his father Frederick was the last emperor to be crowned by the Pope in Rome. Charles I and Ferdinand I 1519—1564 , attrib. He reigned as emperor from 1519 to 1556, when in poor health he abdicated, dying in 1558. Although crowned by in in 1530 Charles had in 1527 he was the last emperor ever to be crowned by a Pope. Although he eventually fell short of his vision of universal monarchy, Charles I is still considered the most powerful of all the Habsburgs. Having inherited his father's possessions in 1506, he was already a powerful ruler with extensive domains. On Maximilian's death these domains became vast. He was now ruler of three of Europe's leading dynasties—the of the ; the of the ; and the of the Crowns of and. This made him ruler over extensive lands in Central, Western, and Southern Europe; and the in the Americas and Asia. As the first king to rule Castile, , and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, he became the first. His empire spanned nearly four million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas. A number of challenges stood in Charles's way, and were to shape Austria's history for a long time to come. These were France, the appearance of the to its East, and see below. Following the dynastic tradition the Habsburgs' hereditary territories were separated from this enormous empire at the in 1521, when Charles I left them to the rule of his younger brother, 1521—1564 , although he then continued to add to the Habsburg territories. Charles added Tyrol to Ferdinand's possessions in 1522. Since Charles left his Spanish Empire to his son , the Spanish territories became permanently alienated from the northern Habsburg domains, although remained allies for several centuries. By the time Ferdinand also inherited the title of Holy Roman Emperor from his brother in 1558 the Habsburgs had effectively turned an elective title into a de facto hereditary one. Ferdinand continued the tradition of dynastic marriages by marrying in 1521, effectively adding those two kingdoms to the Habsburg domains, together with the adjacent territories of , and. This took effect when Anne's brother and hence the died without heir at the in 1526 against and the Ottomans. Ferdinand's election to emperor in 1558 once again reunited the Austrian lands. He had had to cope with revolts in his own lands, religious turmoil, Ottoman incursions and even contest for the Hungarian throne from. His lands were by no means the most wealthy of the Habsburg lands, but he succeeded in restoring internal order and keeping the Turks at bay, while enlarging his frontiers and creating a central administration. When Ferdinand died in 1564, the lands were once more divided up between his three sons, a provision he had made in 1554. Austria in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation 1517—1564 Archduke Ferdinand I, 1521—1564 Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation 1517—1545 When posted his to the door of the in in 1517, he challenged the very basis of the Holy Roman Empire, Catholic Christianity, and hence Habsburg hegemony. After the interrogated and condemned Luther at the 1521 , Lutheranism and the Protestant spread rapidly in the Habsburg territories. Temporarily freed from war with France by the 1529 and the denouncement of the ban on Luther by the that year, the Emperor revisited the issue next at the in 1530, by which time it was well-established. With the Ottoman threat growing see below , he needed to ensure that he was not facing a major schism within Christianity. He refuted the Lutheran position Confessio Augustana with the , and had Ferdinand elected on 5 January 1531, ensuring his succession as a Catholic monarch. In response, the Protestant princes and estates formed the in February 1531 with French backing. Further Turkish advances in 1532 which required him to seek Protestant aid and other wars kept the emperor from taking further action on this front until 1547 when imperial troops defeated the League at the , allowing him to once more impose Catholicism. In 1541 Ferdinand's appeal to the estates general for aid against the Turks was met by demand for religious tolerance. The triumph of 1547 turned out to be short lived with French and Protestant forces again challenging the emperor in 1552 culminating in the in 1555. Exhausted, Charles started to withdraw from politics and hand over the reins. Protestantism had proved too firmly entrenched to enable it to be uprooted. Austria and the other Habsburg hereditary provinces and Hungary and Bohemia, as well were much affected by the Reformation, but with the exception of the Austrian lands shut out Protestantism. Although the Habsburg rulers themselves remained Catholic, the non-Austrian provinces largely converted to Lutheranism, which Ferdinand I largely tolerated. Counter-Reformation 1545—1563 The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation was a conservative one, but one that did address the issues raised by Luther. In 1545 the long running began its work of reform and a on the borders of the Habsburg domains. The Council continued intermittently until 1563. Ferdinand and the Austrian Habsburgs were far more tolerant than their Spanish brethren, and the process initiated at. However his attempts at reconciliation at the Council in 1562 was rejected, and although a Catholic counteroffensive existed in the Habsburg lands from the 1550s it was based on persuasion, a process in which the Jesuits and took the lead. Ferdinand deeply regretted the failure to reconcile religious differences before his death 1564. The arrival of the Ottomans 1526—1562 Main articles: and When married into the Hungarian dynasty in 1521 Austria first encountered the westward expansion which had first come into conflict with Hungary in the 1370s. Matters came to a close when his wife 's brother the young king was killed fighting the Turks under at the in 1526, the title passing to Ferdinand. Louis' widow fled to seek protection from Ferdinand. The Turks initially withdrew following this victory, reappearing in 1528 advancing on and laying the following year. They withdrew that winter till 1532 when their advance was stopped by , although they controlled much of Hungary. Ferdinand was then forced to recognize Ferdinand and the Turks continued to wage war between 1537 and a temporary truce in 1547 when Hungary was partitioned. However hostilities continued almost immediately till the Treaty of Constantinople of 1562 which confirmed the 1547 borders. The Ottoman threat was to continue for 200 years. This considerably weakened Austria, particularly in the face of the Ottoman expansion. It was not until the reign of Archduke 1590—1637 that they were reunited again in 1620—albeit briefly until 1623. It was not to be until 1665, under that the Austrian lands were definitively united. Ferdinand II dying without living issue, his territories reverted to the core territories on his death in 1595, then under 1576—1608 , Maximilian II's son. Maximilian II was succeeded by three of his sons none of whom left living heirs, so the line became extinct in 1619 upon the abdication of 1619—1619. Thus Charles II's son Ferdinand III inherited all of the Habsburg lands. However he promptly lost which rebelled in 1619 and was briefly 1619—1620 under the rule of. Thus all the lands again came under one ruler again in 1620 when Ferdinand III invaded Bohemia, defeating Frederick I. Although technically an elected position, the title of Holy Roman Emperor was passed down through Maximilian II and the two sons Rudolf V and Mathias that succeeded him. Albert VII was Archduke for only a few months before abdicating in favour of Ferdinand III, who also became emperor. Rudolf V Archduke, Emperor Rudolf II 1576—1612 , Maximilian's eldest son, moved his capital from Vienna to the safer venue of Prague, in view of the Ottoman threat. He was noted as a great patron of the arts and sciences but a poor governor. Among his legacies is the. He preferred to parcel out his responsibilities among his many brothers of whom six lived to adulthood , leading to a great heterogeneity of policies across the lands. Among these delegations was making his younger brother Mathias, Governor of Austria in 1593. However he handed over the administration to , another younger brother. In 1593 he instigated a new conflict with the Ottomans, who had resumed raids in 1568, in the so-called of 1593 to 1606. Unwilling to compromise, and envisioning a new the results were disastrous, the exhausted Hungarians revolting in 1604. The Hungarian problem was further exacerbated by attempts to impose a counterreformation there. As a result, he handed over Hungary to Mathias who concluded the with the Hungarians, and with the Turks in 1606. As a result, became both independent and Protestant. These events led to conflict Bruderzwist between the brothers. By 1608 Rudolf had ceded much of his territory to the latter. Further conflict led to Mathias imprisoning his brother in 1611, who now gave up all power except the empty title of emperor, dying the following year and being succeeded by Mathias. Thus Mathias succeeded to the Archduchy in 1608, and became emperor in 1612, until his death in 1619. The conflicts weakened the Habsburgs relative to both the estates and the Protestant interests. Mathias moved the capital back to Vienna from Prague and bought further peace from Turkey, by a treaty in 1615. Meanwhile, religious fervor in the empire was mounting, and even Klesl by now Bishop of Vienna 1614 and Cardinal 1615 was considered too moderate by extremist Catholics, including Ferdinand II. War was in the air, and the assault on two roral officials in Prague on 23 May 1618 was to spark all out war. Mathias, like his brother Rudolf, became increasingly isolated by Ferdinand who had imprisoned Klesl. The next brother in line for succession in 1619 was Albert VII, but he was persuaded to step down in favour of Ferdinand II within a few months. Reformation and Counter-Reformation 1619—1637, architect of Religion played a large part in the politics of this period, and even tolerance had its limits faced with the incompatible demands of both camps. As the Archduke closest to the Turkish threat, Maximilian II was to continue his father's policy of tolerance and reconciliation, granting Assekuration legalisation of Protestantism for the nobles in 1571, as did Charles II with Religionspazifikation in 1572, while in distant Tyrol, Ferdinand II could afford to be more aggressive. Maximilian II's policies were continued by his sons, Rudolf V and Mathias. The strength of the Reformation in Upper Austria was blunted by internal schisms, while in Lower Austria led a vigorous Catholic response, expelling Protestant preachers and promoting reconvertion. A further concession by Charles II in 1578, the Brucker Pazifikation, met with more resistance. The Catholic Revival started in earnest in 1595 when , who was came of age. He had succeeded his father, Charles II in Inner Austria in 1590 and was energetic in suppressing heresy in the provinces which he ruled. Reformation Commissionms initiated a process of forced recatholicisation and by 1600 was being imposed on and. Unlike previous Austrian rulers, Ferdinand II was unconcerned about the effect of religious conflict on the ability to withstand the Ottomans. The Counter-Reformation was to continue to the end of the in 1648. Ferdinand II 1619—1637 and Habsburg over-reach When the ultra-pious and intransigent 1619—1637 was elected Emperor as Ferdinand II in 1619 to succeed his cousin Mathias, he embarked on an energetic attempt to re-Catholicize not only the Hereditary Provinces, but Bohemia and Habsburg Hungary as well as most of Protestant Europe within the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his lands, Ferdinand II's reputation for strong headed uncompromising intolerance had triggered the religious in May 1618 in the polarizing first phase, known as the Revolt in Bohemia. Once the Bohemian Revolt had been put down in 1620, he embarked on a concerted effort to eliminate Protestantism in Bohemia and Austria, which was largely successful as was his efforts to reduce the power of the Diet. The religious suppression of the reached its height in 1627 with the Provincial Ordinance Veneuerte Landesordnung. After several initial reverses, Ferdinand II had become more accommodating but as the Catholics turned things around and began to enjoy a long string of successes at arms he set forth the in 1629 in an attempt to restore the status quo of 1555 , vastly complicating the politics of settlement negotiations and prolonging the rest of the war. Encouraged by the mid-war successes, Ferdinand II became even more forceful, leading to infamies by his armies such as the Frankenburger Würfelspiel 1625 , suppression of the consequent of 1626, and the 1631. Despite concluding the 1635 with , and hence the internal, or civil, war with the Protestants, the war would drag on due to the intervention of many foreign states. Ferdinand III and the peace process 1637—1648 By the time of Ferdinand II's death in 1637, the war was progressing disastrously for the Habsburgs, and his son 1637—1657 who had been one of his military commanders was faced with the task of salvaging the consequences of his father's extremism. Ferdinand III was far more pragmatic and had been considered the leader of the peace party at court and had helped negotiate the Peace of Prague in 1635. However, with continuing losses in the war he was forced to make peace in 1648 with the , concluding the war. One of his acts during the latter part of the war was to give further independence to the German states ius belli ac pacis—rights in time of war and peace which would gradually change the balance of power between emperor and states in favour of the latter. Assessment While its ultimate causes prove to be elusive, the war was to prove a roller-coaster as Habsburg over-reach led to it spreading from a domestic dispute to involve most of Europe, and which while at times appearing to aid the Habsburg goal of political hegemony and religious conformity, ultimately eluded them except in their own central territories. The forced conversions or evictions carried out in the midst of the , together with the later general success of the Protestants, had greatly negative consequences for Habsburg control of the Holy Roman Empire itself. Although territorial losses were relatively small for the Habsburgs, the Empire was greatly diminished, the power of the ruler reduced and the balance of power in Europe changed with new centres emerging on the empire's borders. The estates were now to function more like nation states. While deprived of the goal of universal monarchy, the campaigns within the Habsburg hereditary lands were relatively successful in religiously purification, although Hungary was never successfully re-Catholicized. Only in Lower Austria, and only among the nobility, was Protestantism tolerated. Large numbers of people either emigrated or converted, while others compromised as crypto-Protestants, ensuing relative conformity. The crushing of the Bohemian Revolt also extinguished Czech culture and established German as the tool of Habsburg absolutism. The Austrian monarchs thereafter had much greater control within the hereditary power base, the dynastic absolutism grip was tightened and the power of the estates diminished. On the other hand, Austria was much reduced in population and economic might and less vigorous and weakened as a. The Baroque Austrian Monarchy was established. Despite the dichotomy between outward reality and inner conviction, the rest of the world saw Austria as the epitome of forcible conformity, and conflation of church and state. Impact of war In terms of human costs, the many economic, social, and population dislocations caused by the hardline methods adopted by Ferdinand II's strict counter-reformation measures and almost continual employment of mercenary field armies contributed significantly to the loss of life and tragic depopulation of all , during a war which some estimates put the civilian loss of life as high as 50% overall. Studies mostly cite the causes of death due to starvation or as caused ultimately by the lack-of-food induced weakening of resistance to endemic diseases which repeatedly reached epidemic proportions among the general Central European population—the German states were the battle ground and staging areas for the largest mercenary armies theretofore, and the armies foraged among the many provinces stealing the food of those people forced onto the roads as refugees, or still on the lands, regardless of their faith and allegiances. Both townsmen and farmers were repeatedly ravaged and victimized by the armies on both sides leaving little for the populations already stressed by the refugees from the war or fleeing the Catholic counter-reformation repressions under Ferdinand's governance. Upper Austria would remain under Leopold's successors till 1665 when it reverted to the senior line under. Leopold V's son succeeded him in Upper Austria in 1632. However he was only four at the time, leaving his mother as regent till 1646. Despite the setbacks of the Thirty Years' War, Austria was able to recover economically and demographically, and to consolidate the new hegemony, often referred to as, Austrian Baroque. By 1714 Austria had become a great power again. Yet the roots of Habsburg legitimacy, with its reliance on religious and political conformity was to make it increasingly in the. Nevertheless, in the arts and architecture the flourished in Austria. In peacetime 1637—1657 proved to be a great patron of the arts and a musician. Upon Ferdinand's death in 1657 he was succeeded by his son 1657—1705 , whose reign was relatively long. His brother 1662—1665 succeeded him briefly in 1662, but dying without heir in 1665 his lands reverted to Leopold I. Thus from 1665 Austria was finally reunited under one archduchy. Leopold I 1657—1705 : Final unification and liberation from Ottoman Empire Main articles: , , and Leopold I's reign was marked by a return to a succession of wars. Even before he succeeded his father in 1657, he was involved in the 1655—1660 a carry over from Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War, in which Austria sided with Poland, defeating , a Swedish ally and Ottoman protectorate. At the end of that war the Ottomans overran in Transylvania in 1660, which would mark the beginning of the decline of that principality and increasing Habsburg influence. In vain the Transylvanians appealed to Vienna for help, unaware of secret Ottoman-Habsburg agreements. Fortunately for Austria, Turkey was preoccupied elsewhere during the when she would have been vulnerable to attack on her eastern flanks. It was not until 1663 that the Turks developed serious intentions with regard to Austria what was a disastrous event for the former, being defeated at the the following year. The terms, dictated by the need to deal with the French in the west, were so disadvantageous that it infuriated the Hungarians who revolted. To make matters worse, after executing the leaders in, Leopold attempted to impose a counter-reformation sparking a religious civil war. Although he made some concessions in 1681. Thus by the early 1680s Leopold was facing Hungarian revolt, backed by the Ottomans and encouraged by the French on the opposite flank. Meanwhile, Austria became involved elsewhere with the 1672—1678 which was concluded with the giving the French considerable opportunities reunions , indeed the activities of the French, now also a major power, distracted Leopold from following up his advantage with the Turks, and Austro-Ottoman relationships were governed by the which would grant some twenty years relief. However the reunions bought a badly needed French neutrality while Austria kept watch to the east. The Ottomans next moved against Austria in 1682 in retaliation against Habsburg raids, reaching Vienna in 1683, which proved well fortified, and set about besieging it. The allied forces eventually proved superior and the lifting of the siege was followed by a series of victories in 1687, 1687 and 1697, resulting in the 1699 , having fallen in 1688 but recaptured in 1690. This provided Austrian hegemony over Austria and introduced a large number of into the Empire, who were to have a major impact on policies over the ensuing centuries. With the eastern frontier now finally secured, Vienna could flourish Vienna gloriosa and expand beyond its traditional limits. In the east Leopold was learning that there was little to be gained by harsh measures, which policy bought his acceptance and he granted the Hungarian diet rights through the Diploma Leopoldianum of 1691. However, on the military front, this merely freed up Austria to engage in further western European wars. Austria was becoming more involved in competition with France in Western Europe, fighting the French in the 1688—1697. On the domestic front, Leopold's reign was marked by the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna in 1670, the area being renamed. While in 1680 Leopold adopted the so-called Pragmatica, which re-regulated the relationship between landlord and peasant. War of Spanish Succession 1701—1714 : Joseph I and Charles III Main article: Most complex of all was the 1701—1714 , in which the French and Austrians along with their British, Dutch and Catalan allies fought over the inheritance of the vast territories of the Spanish Habsburgs. The ostensible cause was the future Charles III of Austria 1711—1740 claiming the vacant Spanish throne in 1701. Leopold engaged in the war but did not live to see its outcome, being succeeded by his in 1705. Joseph's reign was short and the war finally came to an end in 1714 by which time his brother had succeeded him. Although the French secured control of Spain and its colonies for a grandson of , the Austrians also ended up making significant gains in Western Europe, including the former now called the Austrian Netherlands, including most of modern Belgium , the in Northern Italy, and Naples and Sardinia in Southern Italy. The latter was traded for Sicily in 1720. By the conclusion of the war in 1714 Austria had achieved a pivotal position in European power politics. The end of the war saw Austria's allies desert her in terms of concluding treaties with the French, Charles finally signing off in the in 1714. While the Habsburgs may not have gained all they wanted, they still made significant gains through both Rastatt and Karlowitz, and established their power. The remainder of his reign saw Austria relinquish many of these fairly impressive gains, largely due to Charles's apprehensions at the imminent extinction of the House of Habsburg. Charles III: Succession and the Pragmatic Sanction 1713—1740 Main article: For Charles now had succession problems of his own, having only two surviving daughters. His solution was to abolish sole male inheritance by means of the of 1713. In 1703 his father Leopold VI had made a pact with his sons that allowed for female inheritance but was vague on details, and left room for uncertainty. The Pragmatic Sanction strengthened this and in addition made provision for the inseparability indivisibiliter ac inseparabiliter of the Habsburg lands. This was to form the legal basis for the union with Hungary and to legitimise the Habsburg monarchy. It would be confirmed by the and would last to 1918. He then needed to strengthen the arrangement by negotiating with surrounding states. Internal negotiation proved to be relatively simple and it became law by 1723. Charles was now willing to offer concrete advantages in territory and authority in exchange for other powers' worthless recognitions of the that made his daughter his heir. Equally challenging was the question of the heir apparent's marital prospects and how they might influence the European balance of power. The eventual choice of in 1736 proved unpopular with the other powers, particularly France. War continued to be part of European life in the early 18th century. Austria was involved in the war of and the resulting 1720 was to see the Habsburg lands reach their greatest territorial expansion. War with France had broken out again in 1733 with the whose settlement at the in 1738 saw Austria cede Naples and Sicily to the Spanish Infante in exchange for the tiny Duchy of and Spain and France's adherence to the Pragmatic Sanction. The later years of Charles's reign also saw further wars against the Turks, beginning with a successful skirmish in 1716—1718, culminating in the. Less successful was the war of 1737—1739 which resulted in the Austrian loss of Belgrade and other border territories at the. On the domestic front military and political gains were accompanied by economic expansion and repopulation Schwabenzug , as Austria entered the period of High Baroque with a profusion of new buildings, including the 1712—1783 and 1716—1737 , exemplified by the great architects of the period, such as , and. However the Habsburgs' finances were fragile. They had relied on Jewish bankers such as to finance their wars, and subsequently bankrupted him. However the financial system in Austria remained antiquated and inadequate. By the time of Charles' death in 1740 the treasury was almost depleted. Habsburg religious intolerance, once unquestioned in the core lands became the subject of more intense scrutiny by 1731 when 22,000 suspected crypto-Protestants were expelled from and the. Similar intolerance was displayed to the Jewish population in Bohemia and surrounding areas under the Familiantengesetze in 1726 and 1727. Worse would have followed had there not also been a realisation that there were economic consequences and that some accommodation was required to the more ideas of western Europe. Among these was which encouraged economic self-sufficiency in the nation state. Thus domestic industries such as the Linzer Wollzeugfabrik were founded and encouraged, but often such ideas were subjugated by vested interests such as aristocracy and church. Rationalist emphasis on the natural and popular were the antithesis of Habsburg elitism and divine authority. Eventually external powers forced rationalism on Austria. By the time of his death in 1740, Charles III had secured the acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction by most of the European powers. The remaining question was whether it was realistic in the complicated power games of European dynasties. Charles III died on 20 October 1740, and was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa. However she did not become Empress immediately, that title passing to 1742—1745 the only moment in which the imperial crown passed outside of the Habsburg line from 1440 to 1806, Charles VII being one of many who repudiated the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction. As many had anticipated all those assurances from the other powers proved of little worth to Maria Theresa. War of Austrian Succession 1740—1748 Main article: On 16 December 1740 troops invaded under King. This was the first of three fought between Austria and Prussia in this period 1740—1742, 1744—1745 and 1756—1763. Soon other powers began to exploit Austria's weakness. Charles VII claimed the inheritance to the hereditary lands and Bohemia, and was supported by the King of France, who desired the Austrian Netherlands. The Spanish and Sardinians hoped to gain territory in Italy, and the Saxons hoped to gain territory to connect Saxony with the Elector's Polish Kingdom. France even went so far as to prepare for a partition of Austria. Austria's allies, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia, were all wary of getting involved in the conflict. Thus began the 1740—1748 , one of the more confusing and less eventful wars of European history, which ultimately saw Austria holding its own, despite the permanent loss of most of Silesia to the Prussians. That represented the loss of one of its richest and most industrialised provinces. For Austria the War of Succession was more a series of wars, the first concluding in 1742 with the , the second 1744—1745 with the. The overall war however continued until the 1748. In 1745, following the reign of the as , Maria Theresa's husband , , was elected Emperor, restoring control of that position to the Habsburgs or, rather, to the new composite house of , Francis holding the titular crown until his death in 1765, but his empress consort Maria Theresa carrying out the executive functions. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 applied to the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs and Archduchy of Austria but not the position of Holy Roman Emperor, which could not be held by women, thus Maria Theresa was not. Seven Years' War and Third Silesian War 1754—1763 Main article: For the eight years following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa plotted revenge on the Prussians. The British and Dutch allies who had proved so reluctant to help her in her time of need were dropped in favour of the French in the so-called bouleversement of 1756, under the advice of , Austrian Chancellor 1753—1793. This resulted in the of 1756. That same year, war once again erupted on the continent as Frederick, fearing encirclement, launched a pre-emptive invasion of Saxony and the defensive treaty became offensive. The ensuing 1754—1763, part of the larger was indecisive, and its end saw Prussia holding onto Silesia, despite Russia, France, and Austria all combining against him, and with only Hanover as a significant ally on land. The end of the war saw Austria, poorly prepared at its start, exhausted. Austria continued the alliance with France cemented in 1770 with the marriage of Maria Theresa's daughter to the , but also facing a dangerous situation in Central Europe, faced with the alliance of of and of Russia. The of 1768—1774 caused a serious crisis in east-central Europe, with Prussia and Austria demanding compensation for Russia's gains in the Balkans, ultimately leading to the in 1772, in which Maria Theresa took from Austria's traditional ally. War of Bavarian Succession 1778—1779 Over the next several years, Austro-Russian relations began to improve. When the 1778—1779 erupted between Austria and Prussia following the extinction of the Bavarian line of the dynasty, Russia refused to support Austria, its ally from the Seven Years' War, but offered to mediate and the war was ended, after almost no bloodshed, on 13 May 1779, when Russian and French mediators at the negotiated an end to the war. In the agreement Austria received the from Bavaria, but for Austria it was a case of. This war was unusual for this era in that casualties from disease and starvation exceeded wounds, and is considered the last of the Kabinettskriege in which diplomats played as large a part as troops, and as the roots of Austria—Prussia rivalry. Reform Francis I 1740—1765 with Maria Theresa 1740—1780. Although Maria Theresa and her consort were Baroque absolutist conservatives, this was tempered by a pragmatic sense and they implemented a number of overdue reforms. Thus these reforms were pragmatic responses to the challenges faced by archduchy and empire, not ideologically framed in the as seen by her successor. Indeed, , the architect of German Enlightenment, though born a Habsburg subject, had to leave due to active discouragement of such ideals. The collision with other theories of nation states and modernity obliged Austria to perform a delicate balancing act between accepting changing economic and social circumstances while rejecting their accompanying political change. The relative failure to deal with modernity produced major changes in Habsburg power and Austrian culture and society. One of the first challenges that Maria Theresa and her advisers faced was to restore the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty, although was slowly replaced by a need to establish the needs of State. Governance and finance Maria Theresa financial and educational reforms, with the assistance of her advisers, notably and. Many reforms were in the interests of efficiency. Her financial reforms considerably improved the state finances, and notably introduced taxation of the nobility for the first time, and achieved a balanced budget by 1775. At an administrative level, under Haugwitz she centralised administration, previously left to the nobility and church, along Prussian models with a permanent civil service. Haugwitz was appointed head of the new Directorium in publicis und cameralibus in 1749. By 1760 it was clear this was not solving Austria's problems and further reform was required. This Staatsrat was to be based on the French which believed that an absolutist monarch could still be guided by Enlightenment advisors. The Council was inaugurated in January 1761, composed of Kaunitz the state chancellor Staatskanzler , three members of the high nobility Staatsminister , including von Haugwitz as chair Erster Staatsminister , and three knights Staatsrat , which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her. The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority. This marked Kaunitz' ascendency over von Haugwitz. The Directory was abolished and its functions absorbed into the new united Austrian and Bohemian chancelleries Böhmisch-Österreichische Hofkanzlei in 1761. Education While Von Haugwitz modernised the army and government, van Swieten reformed health care and education. Educational reform included that of by Swieten from 1749, the founding of the 1746 as a civil service academy as well as military and foreign service academies. An Education Commission Studienhofkommission was established in 1760 with a specific interest in replacing Jesuitical control, but it was the papal dissolution of the order in 1773 that accomplished this. The confiscation of their property enabled the next step. Aware of the inadequacy of bureaucracy in Austria and, in order to improve it, Maria Theresa and what was now referred to as the Party of Enlightenment radically overhauled the schools system. In the new system, based on the Prussian one, all children of both genders from the ages of 6 to 12 , while teacher training schools were established. Education reform was met with hostility from many villages and the nobility to whom children represented labour. Maria Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all those opposed. Although the idea had merit, the reforms were not as successful as they were expected to be; in some parts of Austria, half of the population was illiterate well into the 19th century. However widespread access to education, education in the vernacular language, replacement of rote learning and blind obedience with reasoning was to have a profound effect on the relationship between people and state. Civil rights, industry and labour relations Other reforms were in civil rights which were defied under the Codex Theresianus, begun in 1752 and finished in 1766. Specific measures included abolition of , and. Also in industrial and agrarian policy along cameralist lines, the theory was to maximise the resources of the land to protect the integrity of the state. Widespread problems arising from war, famine unrest and abuse made implementation of landlord-peasant reforms both reasonable and reasonable. Maria Theresa and her regime had sought a new more direct link with the populace, now that administration was no longer to be farmed out, and this maternalism combined with cameralist thinking required taking a closer interest in the welfare of the peasantry and their protection, which transpired in the 1750s. However these had been more noted than observed. In the 1770s more meaningful control of rents became practical, further eroding privilege. While reforms assisted Austria in dealing with the almost constant wars, the wars themselves hindered the implementation of those reforms. Religion A pious Catholic, her reforms which affected the relation between state and church in favour of the former, did not extend to any relaxation of religious intolerance, but she preempted 's suppression of the in 1773 by issuing a decree which removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy. There was both a suspicion of their excesses and of their tendency to political interference which brought them into conflict with the progressive secularisation of culture. Thus they were removed from control of censorship in 1751, and the educational reforms threatened their control over education. She was hostile to Jews and Protestants but eventually abandoned efforts for conversion, but continued her father's campaign to exile crypto-Protestants mainly to as in 1750. In 1744 she even ordered the expulsion of Jews, but relented under pressure by 1748. In her later years though she took some measures to protect the Jewish population. Succession and co-regency Maria Theresa had a large family, , of whom six were daughters that lived to adulthood. They were only too aware that their fate was to be used as political pawns. The best known of these was the tragic figure of 1755—1793. When Maria Theresa's consort Francis died in 1765, he was succeeded by his son as emperor 1765—1790 because of male primogeniture. Joseph was also made co-ruler or co-regent with his mother. Joseph, 24 at the time, was more ideologically attuned to modernity and frequently disagreed with his mother on policy, and was often excluded from policy making. Maria Theresa always acted with a cautious respect for the conservatism of the political and social elites and the strength of local traditions. Her cautious approach repelled Joseph, who always sought the decisive, dramatic intervention to impose the one best solution, regardless of traditions or political opposition. Joseph and his mother's quarrels were usually mediated by Chancellor who served for nearly 40 years as the principal minister to both Maria Theresa and Joseph. Joseph frequently used his position as leverage, by threatening resignation. The one area he was allowed more say on was in foreign policy. In this area he was successful in siding with Kaunitz in , undertaking the in 1772 over his mother's principled objections. However his enthusiasm for interfering in Bavarian politics by invoking his ties to his former brother in law, , ended Austria in the War of Bavarian Succession in 1778. Although largely shut out of domestic policy, he used his time to acquire knowledge of his lands and people, encouraged policies he was in accord with and made magnanimous gestures such as opening the Royal Parks of and to the public in 1766 and 1775 Alles für das Volk, nichts durch das Volk—Everything for the people, nothing by the people. On her husband's death Maria Theresa was therefore no longer empress, the title of which fell to her daughter-in-law of Bavaria until her death in 1767 when the title fell vacant. When Maria Theresa died in 1780 she was succeeded in all her titles by Joseph II. When his mother died in 1780, Joseph became the absolute ruler over the most extensive realm of Central Europe. There was no parliament to deal with. Joseph was always positive that the rule of reason, as propounded in the Enlightenment, would produce the best possible results in the shortest time. He issued edicts—6,000 in all, plus 11,000 new laws designed to regulate and reorder every aspect of the empire. The spirit was benevolent and paternal. He intended to make his people happy, but strictly in accordance with his own criteria. Josephinism elicited grudging compliance at best, and more often vehement opposition from all sectors in every part of his empire. Failure characterized most of his projects. Joseph set about building a rational, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a pyramid with himself as supreme autocrat. He expected government servants to all be dedicated agents of Josephinism and selected them without favor for class or ethnic origins; promotion was solely by merit. To impose uniformity, he made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Empire. The Hungarian assembly was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together. As President of the Court Audit Office Hofrechenkammer , Count 1781—1792 introduced a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792. Joseph reformed the traditional legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre. To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph ordered a fresh appraisal of the value of all properties in the empire; his goal was to impose a single and egalitarian tax on land. The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon. In the cities the new economic principles of the Enlightenment called for the destruction of the autonomous guilds, already weakened during the age of mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde tax districts for the large estates served this purpose, and new factory privileges ended guild rights while customs laws aimed at economic unity. The intellectual influence of the led to the inclusion of agriculture in these reforms. Civil and criminal law In 1781—82 he extended full legal freedom to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by imperial not local officials and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords saw a grave threat to their status and incomes, and eventually reversed the policy. In Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the landed nobility was so great that Joseph compromised with halfway measures—one of the few times he backed down. After the great peasant revolt of Horea, 1784—85, however, the emperor imposed his will by fiat. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the Hungarian peasantry promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters. The first part of the ABGB appeared in 1786, and the criminal code in 1787. These reforms incorporated the criminological writings of , but also first time made all people equal in the eyes of the law. Education and medicine To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few. He created scholarships for talented poor students, and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire. By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better educated doctors requesting improved facilities; cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals; and the monarchy's wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems causing epidemics a 20% death rate in the new hospital, which undercut Joseph's plan, but the city became preeminent in the medical field in the next century. Religion Joseph's Catholicism was that of Catholic Reform and his goals were to weaken the power of the Catholic Church and introduce a policy of religious toleration that was the most advanced of any state in Europe. In 1789 he issued a charter of religious toleration for the Jews of , a region with a large, -speaking, traditional Jewish population. Probably the most unpopular of all his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly traditional Roman Catholic Church. Calling himself the guardian of Catholicism, Joseph II struck vigorously at. He tried to make the Catholic Church in his empire the tool of the state, independent of Rome. Clergymen were deprived of the tithe and ordered to study in seminaries under government supervision, while bishops had to take a formal oath of loyalty to the crown. He financed the large increase in bishoprics, parishes, and secular clergy by extensive sales of monastic lands. As a man of the he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive, as opposed to the service orders. Joseph sharply cut the number of holy days and reduced ornamentation in churches. He greatly simplified the manner of celebration. Critics alleged that these reforms caused a crisis of faith, reduced and a , had tendencies, promoted Enlightenment and a class of liberal officials, and led to the emergence and persistence of. Many traditional Catholics were energized in opposition to the emperor. Foreign policy The Habsburg Empire developed a policy of war and trade as well as intellectual influence across the borders. While opposing Prussia and Turkey, Austria was friendly to Russia, though tried to remove Romania from Russian influence. In foreign policy, there was no Enlightenment, only hunger for more territory and a willingness to undertake unpopular wars to get the land. Joseph was a belligerent, expansionist leader, who dreamed of making his Empire the greatest of the European powers. Joseph's plan was to acquire Bavaria, if necessary in exchange for Belgium the Austrian Netherlands. Thwarted by King of Prussia in 1778 in the , he renewed his efforts again in 1785 but Prussian diplomacy proved more powerful. This failure caused Joseph to seek territorial expansion in the Balkans, where he became involved in an expensive and futile 1787—1791 , which was the price to be paid for friendship with Russia. The Balkan policy of both Maria Theresa and Joseph II reflected the promoted by Prince Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of the border lands by reorganization and expansion of the military frontier. Populationistik was the prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms of labor. Joseph II also stressed economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Balkan development in the last half of the 18th century, especially for the Serbs and Croats. Reaction The nobility throughout his empire hated Joseph: they hated his taxes, his egalitarianism, his despotism and his puritanism. In Belgium and Hungary everyone resented the way he tried to do away with all regional government, and to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed the Emperor's interference in every detail of their daily lives. Why should they be forbidden to bake ginger-bread just because Joseph thought it bad for the stomach? Why the Imperial edict demanding the breast-feeding of infants? Why the banning of corsets? From these and a thousand other petty regulations, enforced by a secret police, it looked to the Austrians as though Joseph were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the Milanese principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes the middle class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism. By 1788 Joseph's health but not his determination was failing. By 1789 rebellion had broken out in protest against his reforms in Belgium and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. His health shattered by disease, alone, and unpopular in all his lands, the bitter emperor died on 20 February 1790. He was not yet 49. Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, and they triumphed in the end. Joseph's attempt to reform the Hungarian lands illustrates the weakness of absolutism in the face of well-defended feudal liberties. Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II had merit despite the way they were introduced. They were continued to varying degrees under his successors. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century. Upon his death in 1790, Joseph was briefly succeeded by his younger brother. Leopold II 1790—1792 Joseph's death proved a boon for Austria, as he was succeeded by his younger brother, , previously the more cautiously reforming. Leopold knew when to cut his losses, and soon cut deals with the revolting Netherlanders and Hungarians. He also managed to secure a peace with Turkey in 1791, and negotiated an alliance with Prussia, which had been allying with Poland to press for war on behalf of the Ottomans against Austria and Russia. While restoring relative calm to what had been a crisis situation on his accession in 1790, Austria was surrounded by potential threats. While many reforms were by necessity rescinded, other reforms were initiated including more freedom of the press and restriction on the powers of the police. He replaced his brother's police minister, , with an advocate of social welfare rather than control. Leopold's reign also saw the acceleration of the. Although Leopold was sympathetic to the revolutionaries, he was also the brother of the French queen. Furthermore, disputes involving the status of the rights of various imperial princes in , where the revolutionary French government was attempting to remove rights guaranteed by various peace treaties, involved Leopold as Emperor in conflicts with the French. The , made in late 1791 jointly with the Prussian King and the , in which it was declared that the other princes of Europe took an interest in what was going on in France, was intended to be a statement in support of Louis XVI that would prevent the need from taking any kind of action. However, it instead inflamed the sentiments of the revolutionaries against the Emperor. Although Leopold did his best to avoid war with the French, he died in March 1792. The French declared war on his inexperienced eldest son a month later. The Arts Vienna and Austria dominated European music during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, typified by the Wiener Klassik. This was the era of , and 's Vienna period extended from 1781 to 1791 during which he was court composer. Opera, particularly German opera was flourishing. Initially the pillars of the establishment—the monarchy, such as Joseph II and to a lesser extent his mother, the aristocracy and the religious establishment were the major patrons of the arts, until rising middle class aspirations incorporated music into the lives of the. Meanwhile, the Baroque was evolving into the less grandiose form, the. The virtual abolition of censorship under van Swieten also encouraged artistic expression and the themes of artistic work often reflected enlightenment thinking. Francis II 1792—1835 1792—1835 was only 24 when he succeeded his father Leopold VII in 1792, but was to reign for nearly half a century and a radical reorganisation of European politics. He inherited a vast bureaucracy created by his uncle whose legacy of reform and welfare was to last throughout the next two centuries. The image of the monarch had profoundly changed, as had the relationship between monarch and subject. His era was overshadowed by events in France, both in terms of the evolving Revolution and the onset of a new form of European warfare with mass citizen armies. Austria recoiled in horror at the execution of Francis' aunt in 1793 despite futile attempts at rescue and even negotiation for release , leading to a wave of repression to fend off such dangerous sentiments influencing Austrian politics. At the same time Europe was consumed by the 1792—1802 and 1803—1815. The French Revolution effectively ended Austria's experiment with modernity and reform from above, and marked a retreat to legitimacy. Domestic policy Francis started out cautiously. The bureaucracy was still Josephist and the legal reforms under the guidance of resulting in the Criminal Code of 1803 and the Civil Code of 1811. On the other hand, he restored to his position of Chief of Police. The discovery of a Jacobin plot in 1794 was a catalyst to the onset of repression. The leaders were executed or imprisoned, but there was little evidence of a tangible threat to the Habsburgs. Suppression of dissent with the Recensorship Commission of 1803 created a void in cultural and intellectual life, yet some of the world's greatest music comes from this time see below. There were still elements of Josphemism abroad, and , the foreign minister with his propagandist was able to appeal to popular nationalism to defeat Napoleon. What exactly such nationalism actually represented is difficult to precisely identify—certainly it was directed to German culture within the Habsburg lands, but it is not clear to what degree it differentiated between 'Austrian' and 'German'. Certainly many of those such nationalism appealed to were German romantics such as , such that patriotism rather than true nationalism appeared to be the goal. Cultural museums were established and citizens militia established—but in the German-speaking lands. Josephism remained alive and well in the other members of Francis' generation. A statue to Joseph was even set up in Josephsplatz in 1807 to rally the populace. In this way the Archdukes' centralism contrasted with Stadion's decentralisation and attempt to give more say to the estates. Nevertheless, such nationalism was successful in rebuilding Austria throughout its various military and political setbacks of the French wars. Following Austria's resounding defeat in 1809, Francis blamed reform, and removed the Archdukes from their position. Stadion was replaced by , who, although a reformer, placed loyalty to the monarch above all. The Landwehr was abolished, and following the discovery of yet another planned Tyrolean uprising Hormayr and Archduke Johann were interned, and Johann exiled to. Revolutionary wars 1792—1802 Main article: France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. The increasing radicalization of the French Revolution including the execution of the king on 21 January 1793 , as well as the French occupation of the Low Countries, brought Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Spain into the war, which became known as the. This first war with France, which lasted until 1797, proved unsuccessful for Austria. After some brief successes against the utterly disorganized French armies in early 1792, the tide turned, and the French overran the in the last months of 1792. By the in September it was evident to Austria and their Prussian allies that victory against France would elude them, and Austria suffered a further defeat in November at , losing the Austrian Netherlands Belgium. While the Austrians were so occupied, their erstwhile Prussian allies stabbed them in the back with the 1793 , from which Austria was entirely excluded. This led to the dismissal of Francis's chief minister, , and his replacement with in March 1793. Once again, there were initial successes against the disorganized armies of the French Republic in 1793, and the Netherlands were recovered. But in 1794 the tide turned once more, and Austrian forces were driven out of the Netherlands again—this time for good. Meanwhile, the Polish Crisis again became critical, resulting in a 1795 , in which Austria managed to secure important gains. The war in the west continued to go badly, as most of the coalition made peace, leaving Austria with only Britain and as allies. In 1796, the planned a two-pronged campaign in Germany to force the Austrians to make peace, with a secondary thrust planned into Italy. French forces entered and the edge of the Tyrol, before encountering Austrian forces under , the Emperor's brother, at 24 August 1796 who was successful in driving the French back in Germany. Meanwhile, the , under the command of the young Corsican General , was brilliantly successful, forcing Piedmont out of the war, driving the Austrians out of and besieging. Following the capture of Mantua in early 1797, Bonaparte advanced north through the Alps against Vienna, while new French armies moved again into Germany. Austria sued for peace. By the terms of the of 1797, Austria renounced its claims to the Netherlands and Lombardy, in exchange for which it was granted the territories of the with the French. The Austrians also provisionally recognized the French annexation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, and agreed in principle that the German princes of the region should be compensated with ecclesiastical lands on the other side of the Rhine. War of the Second Coalition 1798—1801 Main article: The peace did not last for long. Soon, differences emerged between the Austrians and French over the reorganization of Germany, and Austria joined Russia, Britain, and Naples in the in 1799. Although Austro-Russian forces were initially successful in driving the French from Italy, the tide soon turned—the Russians withdrew from the war after a defeat at 1799 which they blamed on Austrian recklessness, and the Austrians were defeated by Bonaparte who was now the , at , which forced them to withdraw from Italy, and then in Germany at. These defeats forced Thugut's resignation, and Austria, now led by , to make peace at in early 1801. The terms were mild—the terms of Campo Formio were largely reinstated, but now the way was clear for a reorganization of the Empire on French lines. By the , the Holy Roman Empire was entirely reorganized, with nearly all of the ecclesiastical territories and free cities, traditionally the parts of the Empire most friendly to the House of Austria, eliminated. This earned him the title of Double Emperor Doppelkaiser Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis I of Austria. The arrival of a new, French, emperor on the scene and the restructuring of the old presented a larger threat to the Habsburgs than their territorial losses to date, for there was no longer any certainty that they would continue to be elected. Francis had himself made emperor of the new Austrian Empire on 11 August not long after Napoleon. The new empire referred to not a new state but to the lands ruled by Austria, that is the Habsburgs, which was effectively many states. War of the Third Coalition 1805 Main article: Soon, Napoleon's continuing machinations in Italy, including the annexation of and , led once again to war in 1805—the , in which Austria, Britain, Russia, and Sweden took on Napoleon. The Austrian forces began the war by invading , a key French ally in Germany, but were soon outmaneuvered and forced to surrender by Napoleon at , before the main Austro-Russian force was defeated at on 2 December. Napoleon entered Vienna itself, as much a celebrity as conqueror. By the , Austria was forced to give up large amounts of territory— to France, to Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, the to Bavaria, and Austria's various Swabian territories to and , although , formerly held by Francis's younger brother, the previous Grand Duke of Tuscany, was annexed by Austria as compensation. The defeat meant the end of the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon's satellite states in southern and Western Germany seceded from the Empire in the summer of 1806, forming the , and a few days later Francis proclaimed the Empire dissolved, and renounced the old imperial crown on 6 August 1806. War of the Fifth Coalition 1809 Victorious during the 21—22 May 1809 Over the next three years Austria, whose foreign policy was now directed by , attempted to maintain peace with France, avoiding the 1806—1807 but obliged to do France's bidding. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons in 1808 was deeply disturbing to the Habsburgs, who rather desperately went to war once again in 1809, the this time with no continental allies, but the United Kingdom. Stadion's attempts to generate popular uprisings in Germany were unsuccessful, and the Russians honoured their alliance with France, so Austria was once again defeated at the , although at greater cost than Napoleon, who had suffered his first battlefield defeat in this war, at , had expected. However Napoleon had already re-occupied Vienna. The terms of the subsequent were quite harsh. Austria lost Salzburg to Bavaria, some of its Polish lands to Russia, and its remaining territory on the Adriatic including much of Carinthia and Styria to Napoleon's. Austria became a virtual subject state of France. War of the Sixth Coalition 1812—1814 Europe in 1812 after several French victories , the new Austrian foreign minister, aimed to pursue a pro-French policy. Francis II's daughter , was married to Napoleon in 1810. Austria was effectively by 1811 and the paper money Bancozettel lost considerable value, but contributed an army to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in March 1812. With Napoleon's disastrous defeat in Russia at the end of the year, and Prussia's defection to the Russian side in March 1813, Metternich began slowly to shift his policy. Initially he aimed to mediate a peace between France and its continental enemies, but when it became apparent that Napoleon was not interested in compromise, Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813 in the 1812—1814. The Austrian intervention was decisive. Napoleon was defeated at in October, and forced to withdraw into France itself. As 1814 began, the Allied forces invaded France. Initially, Metternich remained unsure as to whether he wanted Napoleon to remain on the throne, a Marie Louise regency for Napoleon's young son, or a Bourbon restoration, but he was eventually brought around by British Foreign Secretary to the last position. Napoleon abdicated on 3 April 1814, and was restored, soon negotiating a peace treaty with the victorious allies at in June, while Napoleon was exiled to. War of the Seventh Coalition 1815 Europe after the Congress of Vienna With the completion of the long running French wars a new order was required in Europe and the heads of the European states gathered in Vienna for the prolonged discussion of Europe's future, although the Congress was actually convened in September 1814 prior to Napoleon's attempted return, and completed before the. It was as much a grand social event of the representatives of the as a true Congress and was chaired by. The resulting order was referred to as the. It established a and. In addition to redrawing the political map it created a new entity out of the ashes of the , the. Achieving the presidency of this new entity was Austria's greatest gain from the Congress. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order on which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested. The arts Napoleonic Vienna was the Vienna of , whose was premiered there in 1805, attended by the French military. It was also the era of the third, or 1805 with its ambivalent relation to Napoleon, and the and symphonies 1808. The latter term Before March referring to the period prior to the revolution of March 1848. In 1823, the Emperor of Austria made the five brothers barons. The family became famous as bankers in the major countries of Europe. Metternich kept a firm hand on government resisting the constitutional freedoms demanded by the liberals. Government was by custom and by imperial decree Hofkanzleidekrete. However, both and were on the rise, which resulted in the. Metternich and the mentally handicapped Emperor were forced to resign to be replaced by the emperor's young nephew. Franz Joseph I and the Belle Époque 1848—1914 Post-revolutionary Austria 1848—1866 Separatist tendencies especially in and Hungary were suppressed by military force. A constitution was enacted in March 1848, but it had little practical impact, although were held in June. The 1850s saw a return to and abrogation of constitutionalism. However, one of the concessions to revolutionaries with a lasting impact was the freeing of in Austria. This facilitated , as many flocked to the newly industrializing cities of the Austrian domain in the industrial centers of , , , and. Social upheaval led to increased strife in ethnically mixed cities, leading to mass nationalist movements. On the foreign policy front, Austria with its non-German constituencies, was faced with a dilemma in 1848 when Germany's Constituent National Assembly Deutsche Konstituierende Nationalversammlung , of which Austria was a member, stated that members could not have a state connection with non-German states, leaving Austria to decide between Germany or its Empire and Hungarian union. However these plans came to nothing for the time being, but the concept of a smaller Germany that excluded Austria was to re-emerge as the solution in 1866. Austria's neutrality during the 1853—1856 , while the emperor was preoccupied with his wedding, antagonized both sides and left Austria dangerously isolated, as subsequent events proved Hamann 1986. The Italian question 1859—1860 Italy 1859. Yellow: Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; Orange: Sardinia-Piedmont; Red: Papal States; Green: , and ; Blue: While Austria and the Habsburgs held hegemony over northern , the south was the , with the intervening. Italy had been in a turmoil since the in 1815, with insurrections starting in 1820. He already had a connection through his second wife, , granddaughter of the emperor This he achieved by marrying his son, , to Duchess in February 1859. Marie was a younger sister of the Empress , making Francis brother in law to the Emperor. Ferdinand died a few months later in May, and Francis and Maria Sophie ascended the throne. In the meantime Austria had fallen into a trap set by the Italian risorgimento. This time they formed a secret alliance with France Patto di Plombières , whose emperor, was a previous Carbonari. Piedmont then proceeded to provoke Vienna with a series of military manoeuvres, successfully triggering an ultimatum to on 23 April. Its rejection was followed by an Austrian invasion, and precipitated war with France Second Italian War of Independence 1859. Austria mistakenly expected support and received none, and the country was ill-prepared for war, which went badly. The Habsburg rulers in and were forced to flee to Vienna. In May 1859 Austria suffered a military defeat at the and in June at against the combined forces of France and Sardinia. The emperor refused to acknowledge the seriousness of the situation which was causing great hardship at home, and took over direct command of the army, though not a professional soldier. Later that month a further defeat at sealed Austria's fate, and the emperor found himself having to accept Napoleon's terms at. Austria agreed to cede Lombardy, and the rulers of the central Italian states were to be restored. However the latter never happened, and the following year in plebiscites, all joined the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. By April 1860 had invaded and quickly subdued Sicily, and by February 1861 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist, Francis and Maria fled to Austria. Aftermath—constitutional concessions These events severely weakened the emperor's position. The government's absolutist policies were unpopular and these setbacks led to domestic unrest, Hungarian secessionism, criticism of Austria's governance and allegations of corruption. The first casualties were the emperor's ministers. The Finance Minister, killed himself. Other casualties were , Interior Minister , Police Minister , Adjutant General , together with army generals. The result was a reluctant undertaking by the emperor and his chief advisor to return to constitutional government, culminating in the October 1860 establishing constitutional monarchy through a legislative assembly and provincial autonomy. This was never completely implemented due to Hungarian resistance, demanding the full autonomy lost in 1849. Consequently, the October Diploma Oktoberdiplom was replaced by the Februarpatent , in 1861 establishing a legislative body, the. The upper house Herrenhaus consisted of appointed and hereditary positions, while the lower house, the House of Deputies Abgeordnetenhaus was appointed by the provincial. The Reichsrat would meet with or without the Hungarians, depending on the issues being considered. This was a first step towards the establishment of a separate Cisleithanian legislature, on the other hand the more limited role of the diets in the February Patent, compared to the October Diploma, angered the champions of regionalism. The Reichsrat was dominated by liberals, who were to be the dominant political force for the next two decades. The Danish question 1864—66 The Prussian lion circling the Austrian elephant. By 1864 Austria was at war again, this time allying itself with Prussia against Denmark in the , which although successful this time, turned out to be Austria's last military victory. The war concluded with the by which Denmark ceded the territories. The following year the resolved the control of the new territories, being allocated to Austria, after initial conflicts between the allies. However this did little to ease the over the German question. The ongoing efforts by , the Prussian Minister President, to revoke the agreement and wrest control of the territories would soon lead to all out conflict between the two powers and achieve the desired weakening of Austria's position in central Europe. The Hungarian question From the 1848 revolution, in which much of the Hungarian aristocracy had participated, remained restless, pressing for more autonomy, restoration of the constitution, opposing the centralism of Vienna and refusing to pay taxes Hamann 144. Hungary had little support in the court at Vienna which was strongly Bohemian and considered the Hungarians as revolutionaries. From the loss of the Italian territories in 1859, the Hungarian question became more prominent. Hungary was negotiating with foreign powers to support it, and most significantly with. Therefore, Hungary represented a threat to Austria in any opposition to Prussia within the over the. Therefore, cautious discussions over concessions, referred to as Conciliation by the Hungarians Hamann 146 , started to take place. Emperor Franz Joseph traveled to in June 1865 and made a few concessions, such as abolishing the military jurisdiction, and granting an amnesty to the press. However these fell far short of the demands of the Hungarian liberals whose minimal demands were restoration of the constitution and the emperor's separate coronation as King of Hungary. Chief among these were and , who endeavoured to improve their influence at the court in Vienna. In January 1866 a delegation of the Hungarian parliament traveled to Vienna to invite the imperial family to make an official visit to Hungary, which they did, at some length from January to March. Austro-Prussian War 1866 While Andrássy was making frequent visits to Vienna from Budapest during early 1866, relations with were deteriorating. There was talk of war. Prussia had signed a secret treaty with the relatively new on 8 April, while Austria concluded one with France on 12 June, in exchange for Venetia. While the motives for the war, Prussian masterplan or opportunism, are disputed, the outcome was a radical re-alignment of power in Central Europe. Austria brought the continuing dispute over Holstein before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet. Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that the was ended. Thus this may be considered a Third Schleswig War. Hostilities broke out on 14 June as the June—August 1866 , in which Prussia and the north German states faced not only Austria but much of the rest of Germany, especially the southern states. Three days later Italy declared war on Austria in the , Italy now being Prussia's ally. Thus Austria had to fight on two fronts. Their first engagement resulted in a minor victory against the Italians at near Verona on 24 June. However, on the northern front Austria suffered a major military defeat at the in Bohemia on 3 July. Although Austria had a further victory against the Italians in a naval battle at on 20 July, it was clear by then that the war was over for Austria, Prussian armies threatening Vienna itself, forcing the evacuation of the court to Budapest. Napoleon III intervened resulting in an armistice at on 21 July, and a peace treaty in on 23 August. In the meantime the Italians who had had a series of successes throughout July, and signed an at on 12 August rather than face the remaining Austrian army freed from its northern front. As a result of these wars Austria had now lost all its Italian territory and was now excluded from further German affairs, that were now reorganised under dominance in the new. The concept had prevailed. For the Austrians in Italy, the war had been tragically pointless, since Venetia had already been ceded. Dual Monarchy 1867—1918 Small coat of arms of the 1867—1915, with the Habsburg superimposed on the Austrian Doubleheaded Eagle, and crested by the Crown of While Austria was reeling from the effects of war, the Hungarians increased the pressure for their demands. Andrássy was regularly in Vienna, as was and the Hungarian position was backed by constitutionalists and liberals. While anti-Hungarian sentiments ran high at the court, the Emperor's position was becoming increasingly untenable, with the Prussian army now at Bratislava , and Vienna crammed with exiles, while hope for French intervention proved to be fruitless. The Hungarians recruited who became a strong advocate for their cause. However the needs of the other provinces had to be considered before entering into any form of Hungarian dualism which would give Hungary special privileges, and started to fan the flames of Czech nationalism, since Slavic interests were likely to be submerged. People started to talk about the events of 1848 again. By February 1867 resigned as Minister President over his concerns about Slavic interests, and was succeeded by foreign minister , who promptly pursued the Hungarian option which had become a reality by the end of the month. Ausgleich Compromise 1867 was created through the mechanism of the Ausgleich. Thus the Hungarians finally achieved their aims of autonomy, indeed citizenship of one half of the realm was not recognised by the other. The western half of the realm known as Cisleithania and the eastern Hungarian , that is the realms lying on each side of the of the river, now became two realms with different interior policy, but with a common ruler and a common foreign and military policy. The empire now had two capitals, two cabinets and two parliaments. Only three cabinet positions served both halves of the monarchy, war, foreign affairs and finance when both sectors were involved. Costs were assigned 70:30 to Cisleithania, however the Hungarians represented a single nationality while Cisleithania included all the other kingdoms and provinces. Andrássy was appointed as the first Minister President of the new Hungary on 17 February. Feelings ran high in the provinces, and the Diets in Moravia and Bohemia were shut down in March. Emperor Franz Joseph made a speech from the throne in May to the Imperial Council asking for retroactive ratification and promising further constitutional reforms and increased autonomy to the provinces. This was a major retreat from absolutism. On 8 June, the Emperor and Empress were crowned in a ceremony whose pomp and splendour seemed out of keeping with Austria's recent military and political humiliation and the extent of financial reparations. As part of the celebrations the emperor announced further concessions that aggravated relationships between Hungary and the rest of the monarchy. An amnesty was declared for all political offences since 1848 including and and reversal of the confiscation of estates. In addition the coronation Gift was directed to the families and veterans of the revolutionary Honvéds, which was revived as the. In return for the Liberals support of the Ausgleich, concessions were made to parliamentary prerogatives in the new constitutional law. The law of 21 December 1867, although frequently amended, was the foundation of Austrian governance for the remaining 50 years of the empire, and was largely based on the February Patent, the Imperial Council and included a bill of rights. Ultimately the political balance of the dual monarchy represented a compromise between authoritarianism Obrigkeitsstaat and parliamentarianism Hacohen 2002. Like most compromises it was rejected by extremists on both sides, including Kossuth. Austria-Hungary, 1867—1914 1873 marked the of Franz Joseph, and provided not only an occasion for celebration but also one of reflection on the progress of the monarchy since 1848. The Danube was being regulated to reduce the risk of flooding, a new aqueduct constructed to bring fresh water into the city, and many new bridges, schools, hospitals, churches and a new university built. Foreign policy See also: What was supposed to be a temporary emergency measure was to last for half a century. Austria succeeded in staying neutral during the of 1870—1 despite those who saw an opportunity for revenge on Prussia for the events of 1866. However Austria's allies among the South German States were now allied with Prussia, and it was unlikely that Austria's military capacity had significantly improved in the meantime. Any residual doubts were rapidly dispelled by the speed of the Prussian advance and the subsequent overthrow of the. In November 1871 Austria made a radical change in foreign policy. Beust was an advocate of revanche against Prussia, but was succeeded by the Hungarian Prime Minister, the liberal as 1871—1879 , although both opposed the federalist policies of Prime Minister 1871 while became the new Prime Minister 1871—1879. Andrássy 's appointment caused concern among the conservative Court Party , but he worked hard to restore relationships between Berlin and Vienna, culminating in the Zweibund of 1879. In 1878, , which had been cut off from the rest of the by the creation of new states in the following the and the resulting June—July 1878. The territory was ceded to Austria-Hungary, and Andrássy prepared to occupy it. This led to a further deterioration of relations with and was to lead to tragic consequences in the next century. Austrian troops encountered stiff resistance and suffered significant casualties. The occupation created controversy both within and without the empire and led to Andrássy's resignation in 1879. This territory was finally and put under joint rule by the governments of both Austria and Hungary. Map showing —inhabited areas in rose in western Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1911 The departure of the Liberal Government and of Andrássy from the Foreign Office k. Ministerium des Äußern marked a sharp shift in Austria-Hungary's foreign policy, particularly in relation to Russia, 1881—1895 Andrássy's Conservative replacement pursuing a new rapprochement. Economy The second half of the 19th century saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. During the earlier part of this period, known as , Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture. Austria was able to celebrate its new found grandeur in the , attended by all the crowned heads of Europe, and beyond. This period of relative prosperity was followed by the. Politics and governance Liberalism in Cisleithania 1867—1879 See also: Political parties became legitimate entities in Austria from 1848, apart from a brief lapse in the 1850s. However the structure of the legislative body created by the 1861 February Patent provided little scope for party organisation. Initial political organisation resembled the cleavages in Austrian culture. Since the time of the the had assumed a major role in the political life of the empire, in conjunction with the aristocracy and conservative rural elements. Allied against these forces were a more secular urban middle class, reflecting the and the with its anti-clericism. Other elements on the left were German nationalism, defending interests against the , and found support among urban intelligentsia. However party structure was far from cohesive and both groupings contained factions which either supported or opposed the government of the day. The left, or Deutschliberale Partei factions were known as the Verfassungspartei , but both left and right were fragmented into factions Klubs. Without direct elections there was no place for constituency organisation, and affinities were intellectual not organisational. Nor, without ministerial responsibility, was there a need for such organisation. The affinities were driven by respective visions of the representative institutions. The left derived its name from its support in principle of the 1861—7 constitution and were the driving elements of the 1848 revolution, the right supported historic rights. The left drew its support from the propertied bourgeoisie Besitzbürgertum , affluent professionals and the civil service. These were longstanding ideological differences Pulzer 1969. The 1867 elections saw the Liberals take control of the lower house under 1867—1868 and were instrumental in the adoption of the 1867 constitution and in abrogating the 1855 1870. Suffrage progressively improved during the period 1860—1882. The selection of deputies to the Reichsrat by provincial legislatures proved unworkable particularly once the diet effectively boycotted the Reichsrat in an attempt to acquire equal status with the Hungarians in a tripartite monarchy. As a result, suffrage was changed to direct election to the Reichsrat in 1873. Even then by 1873 only six percent of the adult male population were franchised Hacohen 2002. The initial divisions into Catholic, , , and parties differed across ethnic grounds further fragmenting the political culture. However, there was now emerging the presence of extra-parliamentary parties whereas previously parties were purely intra-parliamentary. This provided an opportunity for the disenfranchised to find a voice. These changes were taking place against a rapidly changing backdrop of an Austrian economy that was modernising and industrialising and economic crises such as and its resultant 1873—1879 , and the traditional parties were slow to respond to the demands of the populace. By the election of 1901, the last election under the defined classes of franchisement Curia extraparliamentary parties won 76 of the 118 seats. This era saw anti-liberal sentiments and declining fortunes of the Liberal party which had held power since 1867 apart from a brief spell of conservative government in 1870—1. In 1870 Liberal support for Prussia in the 1870 displeased the Emperor and he turned to the Conservatives to form a government under 1871. Hohenwart was the conservative leader in parliament, and the Emperor believed his more sympathetic views to Slavic aspirations and federalism would weaken the Austro-German Liberals. Hohenwart appointed as his commerce minister and drew up a policy known as the Fundamentalartikel. The policy failed, the Emperor withdrew his support and the Liberals regained power. The Liberal party became progressively unliberal and more nationalistic, and against whose social conservatism the progressive intellectuals would rebel Hacohen 2002. During their 1870—1 opposition they blocked attempts to extend the dual monarchy to a tripartite monarchy including the Czechs, and promoted the concept of Deutschtum the granting of all rights of citizenship to those who displayed the characteristics of the solid German Bürger. They also opposed the extension of suffrage because restricted suffrage favoured their electoral base Hacohen 2002.